Scoping review of 60 studies surveying machine- and deep-learning approaches (notably CNNs and LSTMs) using wearable inertial sensors to detect and predict freezing of gait and discussing integration into real-time closed-loop systems.

Highlights a translational pathway for digital biomarkers and real‑time detection that can enable adaptive therapies (e.g., closed‑loop DBS, exoskeletons) and better clinical endpoints, but offers limited direct molecular or drug‑discovery insights.

BACKGROUND: Freezing of gait (FoG) is a common symptom of Parkinson's disease, especially in its later stages of progression. Characterized by involuntary stopping during normal gait patterns, FoG greatly increases fall risk, reducing quality of life. Given the complex presentation and etiology of FoG, current treatments have proven ineffective in managing episodes. In recent years, machine learning algorithms have been leveraged to derive actionable clinical insights from biomedical datasets. As a manifestation of neuromechanical dysfunction, impending FoG episodes may be characterized through data collected by wearable devices and sensors. OBJECTIVE: This scoping review evaluates the current landscape of machine and deep learning-derived biomarkers to enhance the personalized management of FoG. METHODS: This scoping review was conducted using established methodological frameworks for scoping reviews and is reported in accordance using the PRISMA-ScR checklist. Three databases were queried, with screening yielding 60 studies. RESULTS: Thirty-nine papers reported on deep learning techniques, with the most common architectures being convolutional neural networks and long short-term memory models. CONCLUSIONS: Inertial measurement units, which can be worn on various locations, may be a promising modality for practical implementation. To generate closed-loop FoG therapies, algorithms can be integrated into real-time systems like robotic exoskeletons or adaptive deep brain stimulation. Future work in generating datasets from ambulatory devices, as well as distributed computing strategies, may lead to real-time FoG management.